Historical India

The Indian subcontinent is site of a civilization as ancient as any in the world. City states arose in North India, along the Indus River, at about the same time as the early civilizations of the Tigris-Euphrates at Sumer and other locations. Over the centuries, India was invaded by many different peoples, all of whom left their imprint.
Hinduism  in India developed out of  multiplicity of local gods, goddesses, and heroes. Gradually this multiplicity was given a coherent framework, in which the individual deities were seen as manifestations of a greater unity. Nonetheless, multiplicity remained a major feature of Hinduism in India, as it is of Indian culture in general.
Local deities were identified with cyclical forces of nature, as is common in an agricultural society-- birth, death, planting; and with the fertility of land, herds, and human beings.
Gradually the belief arose that all these gods were manifestation of the One- Brahma. The physical world in all its variety was seen as a dream of Brahma; it comes into existence, ends, and is reborn in great cycles, as are human souls in the shorter cycles of human lifetimes. This cyclical idea, which reflects the cycles of seasons and fertility, repeats endlessly. The human soul, which is eternal, is reborn, or reincarnated. The actions of the individual in this life accumulate as karma, which affects the status one will achieve in the next life. The ultimate goal is maksha, or the achievement of spiritual perfection which will enable the soul to achieve release from the wheel of life, and attain oneness with Brahma.



The idea of caste system is closely associated with Hindu beliefs about spiritual progress through the accumulation of karma and reincarnation. Caste system is the division of society into rigid classes, which define one's status, occupation, and relationships. Historians believe that the caste system was introduced into India at the time of the Aryan invasions, c. 1500 B.C. as a means of separating the conquerors from the conquered. In due course, this stratification of society was sanctioned by Hinduism, in which caste came to be associated with the level of spiritual attainment.
Thus in India we find a multiplicity of ethnic groups-- hundreds of separate languages are spoken-- a multiplicity of castes within each community-- and the worship of a multiplicity of gods that vary according to locality, caste, and personal preference.
In this context, there are many paths to salvation, but one goal: to achieve release from the wheel of rebirth, to leave this world which is believed to be an illusion. The essential duty of the good Hindu can be summarized as follows:

1. >Live life according to your place, as you were born to it.
2. >Various forms of religious observance and practice are possible, depending on the individual's nature-- physical, ceremonial, or ascetic disciplines may be followed.
3. >The essence of all religious practice is mastery-- control over body, cravings, emotions. Therefore extremes of physical discipline are practiced by some to achieve such mastery. The varieties of physical discipline vary greatly, however. The fundamental idea is to remember that the world is an illusion; one must master the worldly flesh to escape it and reach spiritual enlightenment.

        Although there are many local deities, there are certain deities that are believed to be preeminent, and are  widely recognized. Four in particular are of major importance:-
Brahma-- the creator
Vishnu-- the preserver
Shiva-- the destroyer
Kali/Durga/Parvati-- the goddess in three incarnations: death and destruction, maiden, and mother.

The sacred writings of Hinduism - the Baghvad Gita, the Ramayana, and others, are a mixture of mystical writings and allegorical interpretations of history. Many of the figures and events are believed to reflect actual events and individuals in ancient Indian history.
Both Buddhism and Islam were also important in the culture of the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism first arose in India in the sixth century B.C, but became more important outside of India than within it. Islam came to Northern India (now Pakistan) beginning in the eighth century AD. Since these religions were also of importance in other regions, they will be discussed elsewhere.